Loneliness, mental health and COVID - 19 in the Spanish population

  1. Berta Ausín 1
  2. Clara González - Sanguino 1
  3. Miguel Ángel Castellanos 1
  4. Jesús Saiz 1
  5. Carolina Ugidos 1
  6. Aída López - Gómez 1
  7. Manuel Muñoz 1
  1. 1 Universidad Complutense de Madrid, España
Journal:
Escritos de psicología

ISSN: 1138-2635,  1989-3809

Year of publication: 2021

Issue Title: Impacto de la pandemia de COVID-19 en la salud mental

Volume: 14

Issue: 2

Pages: 51-62

Type: Article

DOI: 10.24310/ESPSIESCPSI.V14I2.12498 DIALNET GOOGLE SCHOLAR lock_openDialnet editor

More publications in: Escritos de psicología

Sustainable development goals

Abstract

The study aim was to assess the effects of the health emergency and the stay at home restrictions on loneliness variables in the Spanish population during the initial stage of COVID-19. A cross sectional study was conducted through an online survey of 3480 people. From March 14, 2020, screening tests were used to evaluate sociodemographic and COVID-19- related data on loneliness, social support, the presence of mental health symptoms, discrimination, and spiritual well-being. Descriptive analyses were conducted and linear regression models were constructed. A negative association was found between loneliness and being older, being partnered, having children, being a university graduate, being retired or still working, having stronger religious beliefs, believing that information provided about the pandemic was adequate, having social support, and having self compassion. Actions that promote social support and further studies on loneliness in groups of older people are needed to prevent the pandemic having a stronger impact on mental health and well-being.

Bibliographic References

  • Alert and Emergency Coordination Centre, Ministry of Health, Government of Spain. (2020). Actualización nº 58. Enfermedad por el coronavirus (COVID-19). Recovered from: https://www.mscbs.gob.es/en/profesionales/saludPublica/ccayes/alertasActual/nCov-China/documentos/Actualizacion_58_COVID-19.pdf
  • Armitage, R., & Nellums, L. B. (2020). COVID-19 and the consequences of isolating the elderly. The Lancet. Public health, 5(5), e256. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2468-2667(20)30061-X
  • Ausín, B., Muñoz, M., & Castellanos, M. A. (2017). Loneliness, Sociodemographic and Mental Health Variables in Spanish Adults over 65 Years Old. The Spanish journal of psychology, 20, E46. https://doi.org/10.1017/sjp.2017.48
  • Banerjee, D., & Rai, M. (2020). Social isolation in Covid-19: The impact of loneliness. The International journal of social psychiatry, 66(6), 525–527. https://doi.org/10.1177/0020764020922269
  • B.O.E. (2020). Real Decreto 463/2020, de 14 de marzo, por el que se declara el estado de alarma para la gestión de la situación de crisis sanitaria ocasionada por el COVID-19. BOE núm. 67, de 14/03/2020. Departamento:Ministerio de la Presidencia, Relaciones con las Cortes y Memoria Democrática. Referencia: BOE-A-2020-3692. Recovered from: https://www.boe.es/eli/es/rd/2020/03/14/463/con
  • Boyd, J. E., Adler, E. P., Otilingam, P. G., & Peters, T. (2014). Internalized Stigma of Mental Illness (ISMI) scale: a multinational review. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 55(1), 221–231. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.comppsych.2013.06.005
  • Brooke, J., & Jackson, D. (2020). Older people and COVID-19: Isolation, risk and ageism. Journal of clinical nursing, 29(13-14), 2044–2046. https://doi.org/10.1111/jocn.15274
  • Campaign to End Loneliness (2015). Measuring your impact on loneliness in later life. London. Retrieved from: https://www.campaigntoendloneliness.org/
  • Cava, M. A., Fay, K. E., Beanlands, H. J., McCay, E. A., & Wignall, R. (2005). Risk perception and compliance with quarantine during the SARS outbreak. Journal of nursing scholarship: an official publication of Sigma Theta Tau International Honor Society of Nursing, 37(4), 343–347. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1547-5069.2005.00059.x
  • Cella, D., Hernandez, L., Bonomi, A. E., Corona, M., Vaquero, M., Shiomoto, G., & Baez, L. (1998). Spanish language translation and initial validation of the functional assessment of cancer therapy quality-of-life instrument. Medical care, 36(9), 1407–1418. https://doi.org/10.1097/00005650-199809000-00012
  • Cohen-Mansfield, J., & Parpura-Gill, A. (2007). Loneliness in older persons: a theoretical model and empirical findings. International psychogeriatrics, 19(2), 279–294. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1041610206004200
  • Cohen-Mansfield, J., Shmotkin, D., & Goldberg, S. (2009). Loneliness in old age: longitudinal changes and their determinants in an Israeli sample. International psychogeriatrics, 21(6), 1160–1170. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1041610209990974
  • Cohen-Mansfield, J., Hazan, H., Lerman, Y., & Shalom, V. (2016). Correlates and predictors of loneliness in older adults: a review of quantitative results informed by qualitative insights. International psychogeriatrics, 28(4), 557–576. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1041610215001532
  • Courtin, E., & Knapp, M. (2017). Social isolation, loneliness and health in old age: a scoping review. Health & social care in the community, 25(3), 799–812. https://doi.org/10.1111/hsc.12311
  • de Jong Gierveld, J. (1998). A review of loneliness: Concept and definitions, determinants, and consequences. Reviews in Clinical Gerontology, 8, 73-80. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0144686X16000040
  • Deng, Y., Chang, L., Yang, M., Huo, M., & Zhou, R. (2016). Gender Differences in Emotional Response: Inconsistency between Experience and Expressivity. PloS one, 11(6), e0158666. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0158666
  • Diez-Quevedo, C., Rangil, T., Sanchez-Planell, L., Kroenke, K., & Spitzer, R. L. (2001). Validation and utility of the patient health questionnaire in diagnosing mental disorders in 1003 general hospital Spanish inpatients. Psychosomatic medicine, 63(4), 679–686. https://doi.org/10.1097/00006842-200107000-00021
  • Eghtesadi M. (2020). Breaking Social Isolation Amidst COVID-19: A Viewpoint on Improving Access to Technology in Long-Term Care Facilities. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society, 68(5), 949–950. https://doi.org/10.1111/jgs.16478
  • European Quality of Life Survey. (2016). European Foundation for the Improvement of Living and Working Conditions. Retrieved from: https://www.eurofound.europa.eu/surveys/european-quality-of-life-surveys/european-quality-of-life-survey-2016
  • Frydecka, D., Małyszczak, K., Chachaj, A., & Kiejna, A. (2010). Struktura czynnikowa Kwestionariusza Ogólnego Zdrowia (GHQ-30) [Factorial structure of the general health questionnaire (GHQ-30)]. Psychiatria polska, 44(3), 341–359.
  • Garcia-Campayo, J., Navarro-Gil, M., Andrés, E., Montero-Marin, J., López-Artal, L., & Demarzo, M. M. (2014). Validation of the Spanish versions of the long (26 items) and short (12 items) forms of the Self-Compassion Scale (SCS). Health and quality of life outcomes, 12, 4. https://doi.org/10.1186/1477-7525-12-4
  • González-Sanguino, C., Ausín, B., Castellanos, M. Á., Saiz, J., López-Gómez, A., Ugidos, C., & Muñoz, M. (2020). Mental health consequences during the initial stage of the 2020 Coronavirus pandemic (COVID-19) in Spain. Brain, behavior, and immunity, 87, 172–176. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbi.2020.05.040
  • Eghtesadi M. (2020). Breaking Social Isolation Amidst COVID-19: A Viewpoint on Improving Access to Technology in Long-Term Care Facilities. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society, 68(5), 949–950. https://doi.org/10.1111/jgs.16478
  • Evans-Lacko, S., Rose, D., Little, K., Flach, C., Rhydderch, D., Henderson, C., & Thornicroft, G. (2011). Development and psychometric properties of the reported and intended behaviour scale (RIBS): a stigma-related behaviour measure. Epidemiology and psychiatric sciences, 20(3), 263–271. https://doi.org/10.1017/s2045796011000308
  • Henderson, C., Evans-Lacko, S., Flach, C., & Thornicroft, G. (2012). Responses to mental health stigma questions: the importance of social desirability and data collection method. Canadian journal of psychiatry. Revue canadienne de psychiatrie, 57(3), 152–160. https://doi.org/10.1177/070674371205700304
  • Jones, X. R., & Keynes, M. Covid-19: An Exposition, with a Focus on Social Isolation in the Elderly (UK). Preprint https://doi.org/10.6084/m9.figshare.12022632
  • Killgore, W., Cloonan, S. A., Taylor, E. C., & Dailey, N. S. (2020). Loneliness: A signature mental health concern in the era of COVID-19. Psychiatry Research, 290, 113117. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2020.113117
  • Landeta, O., & Calvete, E. (2002). Adaptación y validación de la escala multidimensional de apoyo social percibido. Ansiedad y Estrés, 8(2), 173–182.
  • Lang, A. J., & Stein, M. B. (2005). An abbreviated PTSD checklist for use as a screening instrument in primary care. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 43(5), 585–594. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2004.04.005
  • Lang, A. J., Wilkins, K., Roy-Byrne, P. P., Golinelli, D., Chavira, D., Sherbourne, C., & Stein, M. B. (2012). Abbreviated PTSD Checklist (PCL) as a guide to clinical response. General Hospital Psychiatry, 34(4), 332–338. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.genhosppsych.2012.02.003
  • Leigh-Hunt, N., Bagguley, D., Bash, K., Turner, V., Turnbull, S., Valtorta, N., & Caan, W. (2017). An overview of systematic reviews on the public health consequences of social isolation and loneliness. Public Health, 152, 157-171. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.puhe.2017.07.035
  • Losada, A., Márquez-González, M., García-Ortiz, L., Gómez-Marcos, M. A., Fernández-Fernández, V., & Rodríguez-Sánchez, E. (2012). Loneliness and mental health in a representative sample of community-dwelling Spanish older adults. The Journal of Psychology, 146, 277–292. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223980.2011.582523
  • Losada-Baltar, A., Jiménez-Gonzalo, L., Gallego-Alberto, L., Pedroso-Chaparro, M. D. S., Fernandes-Pires, J., & Márquez-González, M. (2020). “We’re staying at home”. Association of self-perceptions of ageing, personal and family resources and loneliness with psychological distress during the lock-down period of COVID-19. The Journals of Gerontology: Series B. https://doi.org/10.1093/geronb/gbaa048
  • Lu, W., Wang, H., Lin, Y., & Li, L. (2020). Psychological status of medical workforce during the COVID-19 pandemic: A cross-sectional study. Psychiatry Research, 288, 112936. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2020.112936
  • McBride, O., Butter, S., Murphy, J., Shevlin, M., Hartman, T. K., Hyland, P., McKay, R., Bennett, K. M., Gibson-Miller, J., Levita, L., Mason, L., Martinez, A. P., Stocks, T. V., Vallières, F., Karatzias, T., Valiente, C., Vazquez, C., & Bentall, R. P. (2021). Context, design and conduct of the longitudinal COVID-19 psychological research consortium study-wave 3. International journal of methods in psychiatric research, e1880. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1002/mpr.1880
  • Maunder, R., Hunter, J., Vincent, L., Bennett, J., Peladeau, N., Leszcz, M., ... & Mazzulli, T. (2003). The immediate psychological and occupational impact of the 2003 SARS outbreak in a teaching hospital. Cmaj, 168(10), 1245-1251.
  • Muñoz-Navarro, R., Cano-Vindel, A., Medrano, L. A., Schmitz, F., Ruiz-Rodríguez, P., Abellán-Maeso, C., … Hermosilla-Pasamar, A. M. (2017). Utility of the PHQ-9 to identify major depressive disorder in adult patients in Spanish primary care centres. BMC Psychiatry, 17(1), 291. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-017-1450-8
  • Okruszek, Ł., Aniszewska-Stańczuk, A., Piejka, A., Wiśniewska, M., & Żurek, K. (2020). Safe but Lonely? Loneliness, Anxiety, and Depression Symptoms and COVID-19. Frontiers in psychology, 11, 579181. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.579181
  • Paúl, C., & Ribeiro, O. (2009). Predicting loneliness in old people living in the community. Reviews in Clinical Gerontology, 19(1), 53-60. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0959259809990074
  • Reynolds, D. L., Garay, J. R., Deamond, S. L., Moran, M. K., Gold, W., & Styra, R. (2008). Understanding, compliance and psychological impact of the SARS quarantine experience. Epidemiology & Infection, 136(7), 997-1007. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0950268807009156
  • Röhr, S., Müller, F., Jung, F., Apfelbacher, C., Seidler, A., & Riedel-Heller, S. G. (2020). Psychosocial impact of quarantine measures during serious coronavirus outbreaks: A rapid review. Psychiatrische Praxis, 47(4), 179-189. https://doi.org/10.1055/a-1159-5562
  • Rossi, R., Socci, V., Talevi, D., Mensi, S., Niolu, C., Pacitti, F., Di Marco, A., Rossi, A., Siracusano, A., & Di Lorenzo, G. (2020). COVID-19 Pandemic and Lockdown Measures Impact on Mental Health Among the General Population in Italy. Frontiers in psychiatry, 11, 790. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2020.00790
  • Santini, Z. I., Jose, P. E., Cornwell, E. Y., Koyanagi, A., Nielsen, L., Hinrichsen, C., ... & Koushede, V. (2020). Social disconnectedness, perceived isolation, and symptoms of depression and anxiety among older Americans (NSHAP): A longitudinal mediation analysis. The Lancet Public Health, 5(1), 62-70. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2468-2667(19)30230-0
  • Scheim, A. I., & Bauer, G. R. (2019). The Intersectional Discrimination Index: Development and validation of measures of self-reported enacted and anticipated discrimination for intercategorical analysis. Social Science and Medicine, 226, 225–235. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2018.12.016
  • Velarde-Mayol, C., Fragua-Gil, S., & García-de-Cecilia, J. M. (2016). Validación de la escala de soledad de UCLA y perfil social en la población anciana que vive sola. Semergen, 42(3), 177–183. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.semerg.2015.05.017
  • Wang, C., Pan, R., Wan, X., Tan, Y., Xu, L., Ho, C. S., & Ho, R. C. (2020). Immediate psychological responses and associated factors during the initial stage of the 2019 coronavirus disease (COVID-19) epidemic among the general population in China. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 17(5), 1729. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17051729
  • Weiss, R. S. (1973). Loneliness: The experience of emotional and social isolation. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
  • Xiao, C. (2020). A novel approach of consultation on 2019 novel coronavirus (COVID-19)-related psychological and mental problems: Structured letter therapy. Psychiatry Investigation, 17(2) 175–176. https://doi.org/10.30773/pi.2020.0047
  • Zhang, J., Wu, W., Zhao, X., & Zhang, W. (2020). Recommended psychological crisis intervention response to the 2019 novel coronavirus pneumonia outbreak in China: A model of West China Hospital. Precision Clinical Medicine, 3(1), 3–8. https://doi.org/10.1093/pcmedi/pbaa00
Data source: Dialnet